Linkers – using these to best effect.

In writing and formal speaking linking words can create a great impact. It is, however, not always easy to know which ones will be correct, most appropriate or give the best impression.

Have a look at these sentences – can you spot the problems?

1. At first we found skiing difficult but at the end we became quite good.
2. Joe caught an early train, because he could get to work early. 
3. Despite he was a great actor, he didn’t appear in many films.
4. At first you mix the sugar and butter, then add the eggs and finally the flour.
5. Even I see your point of view, I cannot agree with it.
6. Beside your family and mine who else should we invite?
7. Although we have spoken about this many times, but you still won’t accept my decision.
8. Because of people spend too much time using computers, they can become overweight.
9. I am going to cover four main areas of grammar in this section, like tenses, adverbs, gerunds and prepositions.
10. Our sales figures for 2009 are somewhat disappointing, moreover they are better than last year.

 These are some of the problems I often come across. The answers!

• At first we found skiing difficult but at the end we became quite good.

              At first (the beginning of the process) …..in the end we became quite good.

• Joe caught an early train, because he could get to work early. 

            so that he could get to work early.

• Despite he was a great actor, he didn’t appear in many films.

             Despite the fact that he was a great actor…. (Despite being a great actor…)

• At first you mix the sugar and butter, then add the eggs and finally the flour.

              First you mix the sugar and butter ………

• Even I see your point of view, I cannot agree with it.

             Even though I see your point …

• Beside your family and mine who else should we invite?

              Besides your family ….

• Although we have spoken about this many times, but you still won’t accept my decision.

             Although …………………………., you still  …

• Because of people spend too much time using computers, they can become overweight.

             Because people spend…..

• I am going to cover four main areas of grammar in this section, like tenses, adverbs, gerunds and prepositions.

             ……………………………………… namely tenses, adverbs ……………

• Our sales figures for 2009 are somewhat disappointing, moreover they are better than last year.

               Our sales figures ……………………………., nevertheless they are …..

The ‘rules’.

There are basically 3 types of linking word that we use in English:

• Conjunctions – but, while, although, though, even though, even if etc..
• Prepositions – despite, in spite of, though, etc..
• Adverbs – however, nevertheless, still, moreover, besides, though etc..

Remembering the part of speech might help you to assess whether you have made the right choice. The linking words have a greater function than simply linking ideas – they also dictate the relationship between the ideas. These relationships can be, for example, contrast, concession, cause/effect, addition, temporal relationships.

Some examples:

If we use the linking words from the above sentences as examples we can see how they should be used and why they are used wrongly here.

• At first – the beginning of a process – goes with in the end and shows a time-related relationship – the beginning and end of a process
• First – the first point, item or step – goes with finally – another time-related relationship
• At the end – denotes the point at which something finishes
• Because –  explains the reason for an action because of – expresses a consequence
• So that – explains the outcome of an action
• Despite – expresses contrast and must be used with -ing, a noun, or the phrase ‘Despite the fact that..
• Even if/though- also expresses contrast and is not used by itself
• Besides –  don’t confuse this with beside (preposition) it expresses additional information
• Namely – is specific and mentions all items on a list (compare with such as, or like, which give examples)
• Moreover/furthermore – add information, nevertheless/nonetheless show a contrast

This is a quick romp through some of the linking words that can be used to add style to your language. It is an area that requires some study but in the long run it will be worth the effort especially if you want to make an impression!

Register – choosing appropriate language for the context

Not only do we have to learn the grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation etc.. we also need to make sure that we use it  appropriately and in the right context.

No peace for the wicked – goes the saying, a constant vigilance in language learning is also required to make sure that we become expert and versatile English users. Selecting the right language for the right situation is important to demonstrate our expertise and to keep us out of hot water!

Consider the following sentences:

• Would you like a cup of coffee?
• Joe – coffee?
• Can I get you a coffee?

Formal, informal and neutral. I’m sure that you can imagine the people to whom each of these should be addressed (boss, friend and someone you don’t know very well).

How about the following scenario?

Your brother has a brand new sports car and you’d like to borrow it. Which would you use.

• Lend me your car will you?
• I was wondering if I might use your car.
• Could I borrow your car?

The first (informal) will probably get the answer ‘no’ (or worse) – remember the car is new and special. The last (neutral) sentence might be more appropriate in this situation. If your brother is unlikely to want to lend then you may need to try the second which is the most formal.

The things to consider are:

• the relationship
• the nature of the request, offer etc..
• how difficult it would be for the person to agree, offer, perform etc..

Here the relationship is very close but the nature of the request is difficult and the person may be reluctant – the car is both new and prized.

When using more formal register there are certain aspects of language that should be avoided. Phrasal verbs are generally too informal, as are idioms. We also usually avoid contractions (can’t, isn’t) particularly in writing.  Incomplete sentences are more appropriate in informal settings.

Aspects that do feature in formal language are modal verbs (check out which of these are formal, neutral and informal), passives and latinate words (activate instead of  turn on, arrive for turn up etc..).

Don’t confuse register and formal/informal language they are not synonymous. Register denotes the choice of language, whether that be formal or informal, you make to match a given situation.

Have a look at the following sentences and see if you can see where they might have problems:

• Dr Phillips I’d like to introduce you to Professor Smithy. He’s the chap who gave the Key Note Speech at last year’s conference.
• We shall be delighted to accept your invitation and can’t wait to see you on the day.
• Let’s go to the 8 p.m. showing I’ll accompany you at 7.30.
• Sue, don’t forget to extinguish the light when you go to bed!
• Sirs, it is with regret that I write this letter. Last week while shopping in your store, I was dissed by one of your assistants………..
• Go away! I don’t want to converse with you any more!
• Delivery time is usually 2 days but we do endeavour to deliver as soon as the goods arrive in the warehouse.

Did you find the anomalies?

Dr Phillips I’d like to introduce you to Professor Smithy. He’s the chap who gave the Key Note Speech at last year’s conference.

• chap is too informal in this context – repeat Professor Smithy gave …

We shall be delighted to accept your invitation and can’t wait to see you on the day.

• can’t wait is too informal – use looking forward to

Let’s go to the 8 p.m. showing I’ll accompany you at 7.30.

• pick you up/collect would be more appropriate than accompany (which sounds very stiff) in this very informal context

Sue, don’t forget to extinguish the light when you go to bed!

• extinguish isn’t really necessary here – turn off would be more natural

Sirs, it is with regret that I write this letter. Last week while shopping in your store, I was dissed by one of your assistants………..

• Dissed is very informal, spoken to rudely or in a rude manner would be better

Go away! I don’t want to converse with you any more!

• converse isn’t a natural choice here – speak to

Delivery time is usually 2 days but we do endeavour to deliver as soon as the goods arrive in the warehouse

• this is a neutral sentence and doesn’t need endeavour, try would be satisfactory

For more practice try this exercise on formal social phrases

Of course once you have mastered the concept of register you can turn it on its head and mix registers for special effects and impacts but that’s for another post!